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Melatonin for ADHD

Melatonin for ADHD

Melatonin is a hormone. It is produced by the pineal gland from tryptophan through several intermediate steps. The onset of darkness (the absence of light, which inhibits melatonin production) is detected by the retina and stimulates melatonin production via the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus. Melatonin regulates the circadian rhythm. Blind people are more likely to have sleep problems and benefit from melatonin supplementation.1 In Germany, immediate release melatonin is freely available in doses up to 1 mg.2 In the U.S., melatonin is freely available as a dietary supplement. In other countries, such as Australia and Scandinavia, melatonin is available only by prescription.

Melatonin appears to be an effective, well-tolerated, and safe treatment for comorbid sleep disorders in both adults and children with ADHD. We are not aware of any reports of inappropriate side effects.

Difficulties falling asleep and staying asleep occur in 15% to 25% of all children and adolescents and in 25% to 50% of those with ADHD. Numerous studies and reviews confirm the benefits of melatonin for sleep disorders, particularly in children and adolescents with ADHD, ASD, or other neuropsychiatric disorders, while side effects are minimal.3 There is little data on the safety and efficacy of long-term melatonin use.45 Others report a 75% prevalence of circadian rhythm disorders among children and adults with ADHD.6
A systematic review of 62 studies involving a total of 4,462 participants with ADHD found consistent evidence that ADHD is associated with an evening/latechronotype and a phase delay in circadian phase markers, such as a weak melatonin response to twilight and delayed sleep onset. There was evidence that melatonin is an effective treatment for sleep problems associated with ADHD. A small number of genetic association studies report links between polymorphisms in circadian clock genes and ADHD symptoms. Overall, there was consistent evidence of a circadian rhythm disorder in ADHD.7
Several other meta-analyses and reviews on sleep problems in children and adults with ADHD also confirmed that melatonin can shorten the time it takes to fall asleep and improve sleep quality without significant side effects.891011

For ADHD-related difficulty falling asleep, immediate release melatonin in doses ranging from 0.5 to 3 mg is recommended (plasma half-life approx. 20–50 minutes, duration of action 3–4 hours), and it should be taken at least about 1 hour before bedtime and not after midnight.12
For those who have trouble staying asleep (which is more common among older adults), sustained-release melatonin may be helpful.

1. Melatonin for Sleep Disorders

A review confirmed that melatonin has a beneficial effect on sleep problems associated with ADHD.13

1.1. Melatonin for Sleep Disorders in Children and Adolescents

1.1.1. Melatonin for Sleep Disorders in Children and Adolescents with ADHD

According to various studies, melatonin is also effective for sleep problems in children with ADHD,1415 16 17 18 although melatonin has no direct effect on the ADHD symptoms themselves.19
In a study involving 74 children and adolescents with ADHD (mean age 11.6 years) who received MPH, 60.8% showed a large or very large improvement in sleep behavior following melatonin treatment (mean dose 1.85 mg/day).20 A small study found that melatonin improved the ability to fall asleep, reduced sleep disruptions, and increased total sleep time in a group of children with mental disorders, including ADHD. No serious side effects occurred.21

A systematic review on the treatment of sleep problems in children and adolescents with ADHD found that melatonin had a positive effect on the ability to fall asleep, sleep duration, and sleep quality. Clonidine also improved insomnia (which is why we suspect the same is true for guanfacine), whereas zolpidem and L-theanine showed barely any improvement.22

A meta-analysis on the use of melatonin to treat sleep problems in children with ADHD reports that melatonin is frequently prescribed as a supplemental pharmacotherapy when optimizing stimulant dosing, sleep hygiene, and behavioral therapy have proven insufficient. Melatonin regulates circadian rhythm sleep disorders, such as difficulty falling asleep in children with ADHD. A Swedish registry study found that 65% of boys and 49% of girls who regularly received melatonin were also regularly taking ADHD medications.(E 3)23 Four studies in children aged 6 to 14 with ADHD and insomnia showed an improvement in sleep onset and sleep latency. Adverse events were transient and mild in all studies.24 Another meta-analysis also found a significant improvement in sleep duration and sleep latency in children with ADHD or ASD compared to placebo, along with a high response rate. Melatonin was well tolerated at doses ranging from 2 to 10 mg/day in children and adolescents in both short- and long-term trials, with few side effects.25 Additional reviews support these findings.2627
A meta-analysis found that melatonin caused a 40-minute earlier bedtime and a 24-minute reduction in the time it took to fall asleep in children and adults with difficulty falling asleep.9

A cohort study from Sweden showed that in 2017, about 2% of all children aged 0 to 17 had been prescribed melatonin at least once. Overall, melatonin prescriptions increased 15-fold among girls and 20-fold among boys between 2006 and 2017. Fifteen percent of girls and 17% of boys who were first prescribed melatonin in 2009 at ages 5 to 9 continued to receive it consistently over the following 8 years. Half of the children prescribed melatonin had at least one mental health disorder. The most common mental health disorder was ADHD, across all age groups and in both genders.28
This is consistent with another Swedish cohort study, which found that 40% of girls and 50% of boys aged 5 to 9 who were regularly given melatonin in 2010 were still receiving it regularly 3 years later. Among 15- to 19-year-olds, only about 10% were still regular users three years later. In 2013, 65% of boys and 49% of girls who took melatonin regularly were also taking ADHD medication regularly. The daily dosage of melatonin appeared to have decreased by nearly 30% between 2006 and 2012.29
Similarly, a Norwegian cohort study shows a steady increase in the use of melatonin (off-label in Norway), primarily to treat sleep problems that occurred in conjunction with other disorders. A large number of children continued the treatment for 3 years, taking the medication daily. The average annual dosage in the third year was 2.95 mg (1.60 to 4.93 mg) per day for boys and 2.47 mg (1.10 to 4.44 mg) per day for girls.30
A very large cohort study involving 48,296 people with ADHD aged 0 to 17 from 2008 to 2012 found that 30% of them received additional medications in addition to their ADHD medications, with melatonin being the most commonly prescribed additional medication, ahead of antidepressants and antipsychotics.31

Given these factors, it is difficult to imagine that melatonin would have been used without providing some benefit, or that serious side effects of melatonin would have gone unnoticed.

In a Canadian survey, melatonin was the medication most commonly prescribed by doctors (73%) for sleep disorders in children, regardless of whether the children also had ADHD.32

A Japanese survey found that just under half of the children who had difficulty falling asleep were treated with melatonin (n = 220). The following study found that effective doses ranged from 0.2 to 8 mg, depending on age (n = 254).33

For sleep-onset insomnia caused by stimulants, sleep hygiene should be addressed first. Among 27 children aged 6 to 14 years who were being treated with stimulants and had a sleep onset latency of more than 60 minutes, sleep hygiene counseling reduced the sleep onset latency to less than 60 minutes in 5 children, with an effect size of 0.67 in the overall group. Among those who did not respond, 5 mg of melatonin reduced the time to fall asleep by 16 minutes compared to placebo (effect size 0.6). The combined effect of sleep hygiene and melatonin achieved an effect size of 1.7 from baseline to 90 days after the trial, with a reduction of 60 minutes. Side effects did not differ from those of the placebo. The improved sleep had no detectable effect on ADHD symptoms.34 The melatonin was provided by the study’s sponsor.
Melatonin administration is therefore indicated for the treatment of difficulty falling asleep, not for improving ADHD.

1.1.2. Melatonin for Sleep Disorders in Children and Adolescents with Autism

Doses of 1–4 mg taken 30–60 minutes before bedtime significantly reduced the time it took for children and adolescents with ASD to fall asleep.3536

1.2. Melatonin for Sleep Disorders in Adults with ADHD

1.2.1. Melatonin for Sleep Disorders in Adults with ADHD

In a review of 41 studies, an international group of experts concluded that sustained-release melatonin (2–10 mg, 1–2 hours before bedtime) may be helpful for adults with symptoms of insomnia or comorbid insomnia associated with affective disorders, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorders, neurocognitive disorders, or during the tapering off of sedative-hypnotics, whereas for adults with disorders associated with circadian sleep problems (such as ADHD), immediate release melatonin (1 mg or less) is generally more appropriate.37

A French panel of experts concluded that melatonin is a helpful medication for adults with sleep disorders and comorbid mental health disorders such as ADHD.38
A meta-analysis found that melatonin caused a 40-minute earlier sleep onset and a 24-minute reduction in the time it took to fall asleep in children and adults with difficulty falling asleep. (Meta-analysis, n = 9)39

1.2.2. Melatonin for Sleep Disorders in Older Adults with Primary Insomnia

In older adults (aged 55 and older), 2 mg of sustained-release melatonin has been shown to have better effects—particularly on sleep efficiency—than immediate release melatonin.40

2. Dosage and Timing of Melatonin Intake

Depending on when melatonin is taken, it has different effects.
Taking 2 to 4 mg immediately up to (ideally) 3 hours before bedtime shortens the time it takes to fall asleep and improves sleep quality without affecting the circadian rhythm.
Taking it 7 hours before bedtime (in lower doses) shifts the circadian rhythm forward, thereby improving both sleep onset latency and sleep quality. In addition, there is evidence that this could reduce existing ADHD symptoms.

Glossary:

  • Sleep latency (SOL):
    • Time from going to bed/turning off the lights until falling asleep for the first time. Measured in minutes. A shorter time is better.
      Wake after sleep onset (WASO): The sum of all periods of wakefulness from the time you first fall asleep until you finally wake up in the morning. Measures sleep continuity / the ability to sleep through the night. A lower value is better.
  • Sleep Efficiency (SE):
    • The percentage of time spent in bed that was actually spent sleeping. Values of ≥ 85% are conventionally considered normal. Higher is better,
      Calculation of Sleep Efficiency (SE) = Total Sleep Time (TST) / Time in Bed (TIB) × 100%
  • Total Sleep Time (TST):
    • Total sleep time in minutes. Higher is better.
  • Sleep Quality (SQ):
    • The definition varies depending on the study. Sleep quality can be a subjectively reported measure—standardized, for example, using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), a sleep diary, or the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI)—or a measure obtained through actigraphy or PSG, which may take several parameters into account: SE, WASO, number of awakenings, sleep architecture (% N3, % REM), sleep fragmentation index, and SOL, if applicable.

2.1. Melatonin (up to) 3 hours before bedtime: Helps you fall asleep and stay asleep

While non-retard-release melatonin taken 7 hours before or several hours after bedtime shifts the circadian melatonin rhythm forward or backward, respectively, non-retard-release or sustained-release melatonin taken immediately before sleep has little effect on the DLMO.

Melatonin was most effective in children at a dose of 2 to 4 mg/day, taken 3 hours before bedtime. This correlated with (meta-analysis, k = 21)41

  • a reduction in the time it takes to fall asleep when taken early relative to bedtime
  • an increase in sleep efficiency and total sleep duration with a longer duration of treatment

In adults, doses of 3 (up to 5) mg taken 3 hours before bedtime were optimal for reducing sleep latency and increasing sleep duration. In contrast, most studies used 2 mg of melatonin 30 minutes before bedtime. (METASTUDY, k = 26 RCTs, n = 1,689)42 Studies in which the medication was taken more than 3.5 hours before sleep were not included in the METASTUDY. Up to a dose of 3 to 5 mg, the pooled sleep latency decreased; above that, it slowly increased again. Interestingly, a dose of 1 mg was even associated with worsened outcomes. In patients with insomnia, melatonin was less effective than in healthy controls, and the efficacy of melatonin gradually increased as the time of administration was brought earlier relative to the sleep period.

Target group Dose Time of administration (in min/h) before bedtime Number of subjects Improvement in sleep latency (SOL) Improvement in total sleep time (TST) Improvement in sleep quality (SQ) / sleep efficiency (SE) Study
_________________ _________ ___________ ___________ ___________
ADHD: Children and Adolescents with Sleep Problems
Children with ADHD, ages 6–14 on stimulants (non-responders to sleep hygiene) 5 mg immediate release 20 minutes before bedtime n = 27 60 minutes faster through sleep hygiene + melatonin unknown improved, ADHD symptoms unchanged Weiss et al., 200634
Children with ADHD receiving 1 mg/kg of MPH, ages 7–12 3 or 6 mg of immediate release melatonin or placebo 30 minutes before bedtime, 8 weeks N = 50 Significantly earlier sleep onset; Reduced bedtime resistance Significantly increased Improved sleep quality; ADHD symptoms unchanged Mohammadi et al., 201243
Children with ADHD and MPH-induced insomnia, ages 9.5 to 14 years average dose 1.85 mg immediate release (titrated in 0.5 mg increments, 1 to 2.7 mg) 60–120 min before bedtime, ≥ 4 weeks n = 74 significantly reduced unknown CGI-I: majority reported “much” or “very much” improvement Masi et al., 201944
Children with ADHD and long sleep duration (mean 135 min.) unknown before bedtime n = 24 sleep duration more than 1 hour shorter unknown Tjon Pian Gi et al., 200245
Children with ADHD-C on MPH, ages 7–12 3 to 6 mg of melatonin based on body weight vs. placebo N = 50, n = 26 Shorter SOL (18 min vs. 23.2 min) Sleep duration + 51 min Reduced sleep disruption Improved height and weight gain; appetite correlated with sleep duration, independent of melatonin Mostafavi et al., 201246
Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPD)
n = 116 -34 min earlier (95% CI: -60 to -8) unknown Increased sleep efficiency; PROMIS scores improved Sletten et al. 2018 47
Children and Adolescents with Autism
Target group Dose Administration before bedtime Number of participants Sleep latency Sleep duration Sleep quality / sleep efficiency Study
Children with ASD 1 mg Before bedtime n = 65 -22.0 min (p = 0.0001 vs. placebo -5.0 min) unknown unknown Hayashi et al. 202235
Children with ASD 4 mg Before bedtime n = 65 -28.0 min (p = 0.0001 vs. placebo -5.0 min) unknown unknown Hayashi et al. 202235
Children with ASD, ages 4–10 3 mg sustained release (1 mg immediately, 2 mg within 6 hours) 9:00 p.m. n = 32, N = 64 Actigraphy: -34.39 min; CSHQ-SOD: -0.83 unknown unknown Cortesi et al., 201248
Children and adolescents with ASD, 2–17.5 years 2–5 mg sustained release, titrated 30–60 minutes n = 125 –25.3 min (95% CI: –44.7 to –5.9) unknown unknown Gringras et al., 201749
Children and adolescents with ASD, ages 3–16 2 mg to a maximum of 10 mg (immediate release), titrated until “good results” are achieved 30–40 minutes N = 17 –46.7 min +52 min No change in nighttime awakenings Wright et al., 201150
Children with ASD, mean age 5 years 5 mg immediate release 20 min, 4-week crossover n = 7 Sleep latency reduced from 2.6 hours to 1.06 hours Extended from 8.05 to 9.84 hours Nighttime awakenings reduced to 30% Garstang & Wallis 200651
Children with ASD, Fragile X syndrome, or both, ages 2–15, mean age 5.5 years 3 mg immediate release 30 min before bedtime, 2-week crossover n = 12 28 min faster, 42 min earlier 21 min longer Wirojanan et al., 200952
Children with ASD, ages 3–10 1 (n = 7), 3 (n = 14), 6 (n = 3) mg immediate release (dose titration) 30 min before bedtime, 14-week open-label study following a 2-week placebo run-in n = 24 16 min faster 15 min longer Improvement on sleep, behavior, and parental stress scales Malow et al., 201253
Children with ASD and Asperger syndrome, ages 6–17 (open-label, not an RCT) 3 mg immediate release in the evening before bedtime, 14 days n = 15 18 minutes faster unchanged behavioral measures significantly improved (effect disappeared after discontinuation) Paavonen et al., 200354
Children with neurodevelopmental disabilities, including ASD and DSPS, ages 2–18 5 mg sustained release (CR) in the evening before bedtime; 10-day crossover, followed by 3 months of open-label treatment n = 50 34 minutes shorter 30 minutes longer Improved clinical and global functioning; Family stress reduced Wasdell et al., 200855
Children with neurodevelopmental disorders (~60 of whom have ASD), ages 3–15 (MENDS study) 0.5 / 2 / 6 / 12 mg immediate release (titrated) 45 min before bedtime, 12 weeks n = 146 58.3 min shorter (actigraph) 15.7 min longer 7.3% fewer nights with unsatisfactory sleep Gringras et al., 2012 (MENDS)56
Children and Adolescents with Other Disorders
Target group Dose Administration before bedtime Number of participants Sleep onset latency Sleep duration Sleep quality / sleep efficiency Study
Children with Rett syndrome, 10 years 2.5–7.5 mg immediate release in the evening before bedtime, 4-week crossover n = 9 19 minutes faster (p < 0.05) TST +22 minutes (n.s.) no change in waking time McArthur & Budden, 199857
Children with Angelman syndrome and chronic insomnia, ages 2–15 2.5–5 mg immediate release 30 min before bedtime, 4-week crossover n = 8 32 min faster (p < 0.001) 56 minutes longer (p = 0.001) Significantly reduced awakenings Braam et al., 200858
Children and adolescents with chronic (idiopathic) sleep disorders
Target group Dose Time before sleep Number of participants Sleep latency Sleep duration Sleep quality / sleep efficiency Study
Children with idiopathic CSOI, ages 6–12 5 mg immediate release 7:00 p.m. (~2–3 hours before bedtime) n = 62 17 min (latency) / 57 min faster (onset) (p < 0.001) 33 min longer RAND-GHRI / FS-II health and sleep status significantly improved Smits et al., 200359
Adults 45 and older
Target group Dose Administration before bedtime Number of participants Sleep latency Sleep duration Sleep quality / sleep efficiency Study
Primary insomnia in individuals aged 45 to 60 years 3 mg immediate release 1 hour n = 51 (melatonin group), N = 97 (total) No significant improvement -30.63 min earlier wake time (p=0.001) PSQI unchanged Xu et al. 202060
Adults with insomnia aged 51 and older 0.1 mg 30 minutes n = 15 not significant reported improvement Sleep efficiency: 84% (vs. 78% placebo) Zhdanova et al. 200161
Adults with insomnia aged 51 and older 0.3 mg 30 minutes n = 15 not significant improvement reported sleep efficiency: 88% (vs. 78% placebo, p = 0.0001) Zhdanova et al. 200161
Adults with insomnia aged 51 and older 3 mg 30 minutes n = 15 not significant reported improvement sleep efficiency: 84% (vs. 78% placebo) Zhdanova et al. 200161
Adults aged 55 and older 2 mg sustained release unknown n = 170 patient reports, variable +2.2 min vs. placebo improvement in sleep quality Lemoine et al., 200762
Adults aged 55 and older 2 mg sustained-release 2 hours before bedtime, after a meal n = 40 6.9 min / 10.6 min faster vs. placebo unknown Luthringer et al., 200963
Adults aged 55 to 80 years 2 mg sustained release 2 hours before bedtime N = 354, n = 171 24.3 min (3 weeks, ages 65–80); 25.9 min faster (19 weeks, ages 65–80) unknown improvement in sleep quality Wade et al., 200764
Adults aged 55 and older (mean age 64.2 years) 0.3 mg 30 minutes n = 24 unknown Trend toward an increase (mainly during the day) Increased sleep efficiency (mainly during the biological day) Duffy et al., 202265
Adults aged 56 and older (average age 64.2 years) 5 mg 30 minutes n = 24 unknown Significant increase (day and night) Sleep efficiency significantly increased (day and night) Duffy et al., 202265
Adults with chronic insomnia, ages 70–90 2 mg immediate release 2 hours n = 24 Significant improvement after 1 week unknown Sleep efficiency: 78.8% (vs. 77.4% placebo) Haimov et al., 1995 66
Adults with chronic insomnia, ages 70–90 2 mg sustained release 2 hours n = 24 Significant improvement after 1 week unknown Sleep efficiency: 80.4% (vs. 77.4% placebo) Haimov et al., 1995 66
Adults with chronic insomnia, ages 70–90 1 mg sustained release 2 hours n = 17 Significant improvement after 2 months unknown Sleep efficiency: 84.3% (vs. 77.4% placebo) Haimov et al., 1995 66
Adults with primary insomnia
Target group Dosage Administration before sleep Number of participants Sleep latency Sleep duration Sleep quality / sleep efficiency Study
Healthy middle-aged subjects 0.3 mg immediate release in the evening before bedtime n = 15 (crossover) 4.1 minutes faster, 5.8 minutes earlier 8.4 minutes longer sleep efficiency tended to increase Attenburow et al., 199667
Healthy middle-aged subjects 1.0 mg immediate release in the evening before bedtime n = 15 (crossover) 3.6 minutes faster, 10.9 minutes earlier 21.6 minutes longer (significant) Sleep efficiency significantly increased Attenburow et al., 199667
Adults with primary insomnia, ages 18–80 , 2 mg sustained release (PRM) 2 hours before bedtime, 3 weeks + 26 weeks n = 791 19.1 minutes faster in those ≥ 55 years of age approx. 40 minutes longer PSQI and WHO-5 significantly improved Wade et al., 201068
Adults with Intellectual Disabilities
Target group Dose Administration before bedtime Number of participants Sleep latency Sleep duration Sleep quality / sleep efficiency Study
Adults and children with intellectual disabilities and chronic insomnia 5 mg immediate release 30 min before bedtime, 4 weeks n = 51 29 min shorter, 34 min earlier (p < 0.001) 48 min longer 40% fewer awakenings per night Braam et al., 200869
Adults with intellectual disability and chronic insomnia (follow-up RCT on daytime behavior) 5 mg immediate release 30 minutes before bedtime, 4 weeks N = 49, n = 27 40 min faster 53 min longer 30% fewer nighttime awakenings, significantly reduced challenging behavior during the day Braam et al., 201070
(Meta-analysis, k = 9 RCTs, n = 183)71
Adults: Older Adults with Insomnia and Dementia
Target Group Dose Administration before bedtime Number of participants Sleep onset latency (SOL) Sleep duration Sleep quality / Sleep efficiency Study
Older patients (~76 years) with insomnia and chronic conditions 2 mg sustained release 2 hours before bedtime, 3 weeks n = 12 (crossover) SOL 24 minutes faster (not significant), WASO 49 min shorter (significant) unchanged Sleep efficiency and subjective sleep quality significantly improved Garfinkel et al., 199572
Patients with Alzheimer’s dementia and nocturnal sleep disturbances 2.5 mg sustained release or 10 mg immediate release 1 hour before bedtime, 8 weeks n = 157 (3-arm study) no change (actigraphic) no change (actigraphically) Trends, but no significant effects Singer et al., 200373
Patients with institutionalized Alzheimer’s dementia 8.5 mg immediate release + 1.5 mg sustained release 10:00 p.m., 10 days N = 41 unchanged (actigraphically) unchanged (actigraphically) unchanged (actigraphically); agitation also unchanged Gehrman et al., 200974
Patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s dementia, age 75 , 2 mg sustained release (add-on to standard therapy) , 1–2 hours before bedtime, 24 weeks , n = 80 , unknown , unknown , PSQI significantly improved; ADAS-Cog and IADL significantly better in Alzheimer’s patients with insomnia Wade et al., 201475
Adults with Parkinson’s
Target group Dose Administration before bedtime Number of participants Sleep latency Sleep duration Sleep quality / sleep efficiency Study
Parkinson’s disease with sleep disturbance 3 mg immediate release 30 minutes before bedtime, 2 weeks n = 18 not significant (PSG) not significant subjective sleep quality (GSDS) improved; PSG parameters unchanged Medeiros et al., 200776
Parkinson’s disease with REM sleep behavior disorder 4 mg sustained release immediately before bedtime, 8 weeks n = 30 unknown unchanged No significant reduction in REM sleep disorder Gilat et al., 202077
Parkinson’s disease with sleep disturbances 50 mg (very high dose) 30 min before bedtime, 2 weeks n = 40 unknown 5 min longer (5 mg), 8 min longer (50 mg) subjective sleep quality significantly improved Dowling et al., 200578
Adults: Shift workers
Target group Dose Administration before bedtime Number of participants Sleep latency Sleep duration Sleep quality / sleep efficiency Study
Nurses working the night shift, ages 24–46 5 mg immediate release 30 min before daytime sleep following a night shift n = 86 (crossover) subjective SOL significantly shortened vs. placebo and baseline unchanged unchanged Sadeghniiat-Haghighi et al., 200879
Shift workers with difficulty falling asleep, mean age ~ 36 years 3 mg immediate release 30 min before daytime nap n = 39 (crossover) SOL 7 min faster (actigraphy, p < 0.05), WASO not significant TST not significant Sleep efficiency significantly increased Sadeghniiat-Haghighi et al., 201680
Young adults (27 years old) in a simulated night shift (8 hours of daytime sleep) 1.8 mg sustained release 30 minutes before daytime sleep n = 21 (crossover) unknown Loss of daytime sleep time on the first day prevented; more pronounced in “poor daytime sleepers” no hangover effects; MSLT unchanged Sharkey et al., 200181
n = 47 TST significantly increased during daytime naps TST +94 min on some days subjective sleep quality not significantly different Source unverifiable
Adults: Jet Lag
Target group Dose Administration before bedtime Number of participants Sleep latency Sleep duration Sleep quality / sleep efficiency Study
Travelers on eastbound flights crossing 6–8 time zones 5 mg immediate release at bedtime at the destination, for 4 days n = 234 SOL significantly shorter (p < 0.05) unknown Sleep quality significantly improved. Suhner et al., 199882
n = 234 tended to be shorter (less than 5 mg) unknown tended to be improved (less than 5 mg) Suhner et al., 1998 82
Travelers on eastbound flights crossing 6–8 time zones 2 mg sustained-release at bedtime at the destination, for 4 days n = 234 not significant unknown less effective than non-sustained-release Suhner et al., 199882
Travelers on eastbound flights (Cochrane meta-analysis) 0.5–5 mg immediate release close to bedtime at destination (10:00–12:00 p.m.) 10 RCTs Jet lag symptoms significantly reduced in 9 out of 10 studies not systematically evaluated Sleep quality significantly better at 5 mg vs. 0.5 mg; higher doses were not helpful; sustained release melatonin was less effective Herxheimer & Petrie 2002 (Cochrane)83
Insomnia with Comorbidities
Target group Dose Administration before bedtime Number of participants Sleep latency Sleep duration Sleep quality / sleep efficiency Study
Inpatients in internal medicine with difficulty falling asleep average stable dose 5.4 mg immediate release (flexible) in the evening before bedtime, 8–16 days N = 33, n = 18 Significantly accelerated sleep onset (p < 0.05) Significantly increased sleep duration Significantly improved sleep quality and depth; no hangover Andrade et al., 200184
Ventilated ICU patients after tracheostomy 10 mg 9:00 p.m., 4 nights n = 24 unknown 60 min longer Sleep efficiency tended to be better; lower doses (1–2 mg) might be better Bourne et al., 200885
Hemodialysis patients with insomnia 3 mg immediate release at bedtime = 10:00 p.m., 6 weeks n = 50 (crossover) SOL 21 minutes faster (actigraphy) 1 hour longer (p < 0.01) Sleep efficiency significantly increased Edalat-Nejad et al., 201386
Patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) 3 mg immediate release 10:00 p.m., 3 months n = 25, n = 12 shortened (p = 0.008) prolonged (p = 0.046) PSQI total score and sleep disturbance subscale significantly improved Nunes et al., 200887
Breast cancer patients with insomnia (ages 30–75) 6 mg immediate-release 30 min before bedtime, 8 weeks n = 43 unknown 37 min longer PSQI total score and subscales (sleep disturbances, sleep quality, sleep duration) significantly improved Hansen et al., 201488

2.2. Melatonin 7 hours before bedtime: Brings sleep on earlier

Taking melatonin at the right times can shift the circadian rhythm forward or backward.89 The so-called “phase-advance zone” for melatonin—the time period during which it shifts the circadian rhythm forward—is the afternoon or early evening. This can help treat delayed sleep phases, such as the difficulty falling asleep commonly seen in ADHD (Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome, DSPS, also known as DSWPD or ZSPS) or jet lag when traveling east.90 The phase-advance zone for melatonin ranges from CT 6 to CT 18, while the phase-delay zone ranges from CT 18 to CT 6.91
Delayed melatonin release is thought to play a key role in the pathophysiology of DSPS.

Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS) should be diagnosed,

  • if
    • Difficulty falling asleep at the desired bedtime after 11:30 p.m. and/or
    • Sleep latency of more than 30 minutes
  • lead to daytime impairments in social and/or occupational functioning, and
  • Symptoms
    • have existed for at least 6 months
    • cannot be explained by other factors

2.2. Melatonin According to DLMO: Delays the Onset of Sleep

Taking melatonin in the middle of the night or immediately after waking up can shift the circadian melatonin rhythm later.

3. Other Information About Melatonin

The daily doses of melatonin as a medication range from 0.5 milligrams to 8 milligrams.

Melatonin sustained release should only be used in cases of complete failure of melatonin production.92

3.1. Synthesis of Melatonin

Melatonin is synthesized in the pinealocytes of the pineal gland from L-tryptophan via the intermediate steps of 5-hydroxytryptophan and serotonin. The last two steps (N-acetylation by AANAT, methylation by ASMT/HIOMT) are regulated specifically at night.
L-tryptophan → 5-HTP (via tryptophan hydroxylase) → serotonin (via AADC) → N-acetylserotonin (via AANAT) → melatonin (via HIOMT/ASMT).

Light is detected by melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells, which, through the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), suppress melatonin synthesis in the pineal gland.
In the dark, this inhibition is lifted. The SCN then activates noradrenergic fibers to the pineal gland via the paraventricular nucleus, the spinal intermediolateral column, and the superior cervical ganglion, which induces AANAT and increases melatonin release.

3.2. What Is Affected by Melatonin

Melatonin stabilizes and strengthens the synchronization of circadian rhythms, particularly core body temperature and the sleep-wake cycle.
Melatonin also appears to influence the circadian regulation of a number of other physiological functions, such as93

  • antioxidant defense
  • Hemostasis
  • Glucose regulation
  • Immune system
    • Pro-inflammatory cytokines (especially IL-6) reach a peak at night when cortisol levels are low (which is influenced by melatonin)
      • Example: morning joint stiffness in rheumatoid arthritis 94
    • The immune system is regulated by the circadian rhythm95
  • Dexamethasone induces circadian gene expression in cultured fibroblasts and transiently shifts the phase in the liver, kidneys, and heart, but not in the SCN96
  • Core body temperature
    • Under normal conditions, the melatonin peak occurs approximately 1.8 ± 0.2 hours before the temperature minimum97
    • The melatonin rhythm is less easily influenced by environmental factors (other than light) than body temperature. Melatonin is therefore a more reliable marker of the circadian phase than core body temperature.9899
    • The temporal course of the decline in core body temperature is closely linked to nocturnal melatonin secretion (r = 0.97). Melatonin is believed to be causally responsible for at least 40% of the amplitude of the temperature rhythm.
      Inhibition of melatonin secretion with the β-blocker atenolol attenuated the nighttime drop in body temperature. Administration of melatonin lowered body temperature during the day.100
    • The DLMO occurs approximately 7 hours before the core body temperature reaches its lowest point and 1.25 hours before melatonin synthesis ceases.101102

3.3. Breakdown of Melatonin

Because melatonin is metabolized by CYP1A2 and (to a lesser extent) CYP2C19, caution should be exercised when combining it with medications that are also metabolized by these enzymes.
This mechanism also explains the sedative effect of imipramine/desipramine; when this effect is pronounced, it means that imipramine should be taken in the evening.

A decrease in melatonin’s effectiveness could be due to CYP1A2 underactivity. In this case, a reduction in dosage is recommended.103

3.4. Measurement of Melatonin

Melatonin is released as it gets dark; the release starts slowly and typically accelerates between 10:00 p.m. and 11:00 p.m. (acrophase). The high melatonin level begins to decline again around 2:00 a.m. to 4:00 a.m.92

A test can be performed using serum, the first morning urine sample, or saliva.
A measurement based on serum or the first morning urine sample is not suitable for determining the daily profile.

3.5. Risks and Side Effects of Melatonin

Melatonin appears to be a safe treatment for improving sleep problems in children and adults with ADHD. Its widespread use, the long duration of use among people with ADHD, and the rising number of users all point to evidence of its successful use. The fact that there are only a few large clinical studies on the use of melatonin for sleep problems in ADHD may also be due to the fact that, understandably, off-patent active ingredients (such as melatonin) are of no economic interest to pharmaceutical companies. It is not the responsibility of pharmaceutical companies to investigate the efficacy or safety of off-patent active ingredients. On the contrary, from an economic perspective, there would be a greater incentive to identify negative aspects of melatonin in order to avoid competition from melatonin as a generic active ingredient. Yet even such reports are lacking.

We were unable to find any studies documenting the occurrence of significant side effects from melatonin. Given the large number of users and its long history of use in treating sleep problems, including in children and adults with ADHD, we consider the absence of reports of side effects to be an indication of good tolerability.
Nevertheless, there are reports of side effects associated with long-term use of melatonin. In such cases, intermittent use is recommended, including a 1- to 2-day break every 1 to 2 weeks.

A review states that there are no known significant side effects of melatonin.103

Adults produce approximately 20 to 60 micrograms of melatonin daily. Melatonin is rapidly absorbed and metabolized during its first pass through the liver, with a half-life of 30 to 40 minutes (in children aged 3 to 8 years as well as in adults, while newborns showed a half-life of up to 20 hours) and a bioavailability of 1 to 37%. In the liver, it is metabolized by CYP1A220 to 6-hydroxymelatonin and then sulfated to 6-sulfatoxymelatonin or conjugated to glucuronide and excreted.104

Excessively high melatonin levels can cause depression (seasonal affective disorder).
Possible side effects may include:

  • Night sweats105
  • Nighttime hot flashes105
  • Mood swings105
    • Restlessness
    • Nervousness
    • Anxiety
    • Lethargy
  • Nightmares
    • Occasional (in 1 out of every 100–1,000 patients) to rare (in 1 out of every 1,000–10,000 patients)106
  • very vivid dreams
    • occasional to rare106
  • Stomach cramps
    • occasionally to rarely106
  • Dizziness
    • occasionally to rarely106
  • Headaches
    • occasionally to rarely106
  • Irritability
    • occasionally to rarely106
  • decreased sexual desire
    • occasionally to rarely106

3.6. Interactions with Melatonin

Interactions with antithrombotic agents and antiepileptic drugs are possible.

3.6.1. Reducing the Effects of Melatonin

  • Some psychiatric medications92
  • Alpha blockers92
  • Beta-blockers92
  • Alcohol
    • Even moderate amounts of alcohol, consumed one hour before bedtime, caused a significant decrease in melatonin levels in young adults.107

3.6.2. Increasing the Effects of Melatonin

Due to the metabolism mechanism, CYP1A2 and CYP2C19 inhibitors increase the plasma levels and bioavailability of melatonin:

  • Fluvoxamine108109
    • inhibits the breakdown of melatonin in the liver; prolongs the duration and enhances the potency of melatonin92
  • Desipramine108
    • and, consequently, imipramine as well, since it is converted to desipramine
  • Caffeine110
  • Theophylline104
  • Citalopram / Escitalopram as a CYP2C19 inhibitor111
  • Ciprofloxacin
    • Inhibits the breakdown of melatonin in the liver; enhances the duration and potency of melatonin92

3.6.3. Melatonin Increases the Effects of Other Medications

Melatonin enhances the sedative effects of, among other things:92

  • Benzodiazepines
  • Zaleplon
  • Zopiclone
  • Zolpidem
  • Imipramine
  • Thioridazine

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