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Non-pharmacological treatments for ADHD whose safety is uncertain

Non-pharmacological treatments for ADHD whose safety is uncertain

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Non-pharmacological treatment approaches for ADHD whose effectiveness has not been established

1.2.1. Occupational Therapy

The effectiveness of occupational therapy for ADHD is limited to pre-school treatment of fine motor skills.1
A study reports positive effects of equine-assisted occupational therapy for schoolchildren with ADHD.2

1.2.2. Hemencephalography Training

Effect not yet recognized; preliminary studies.3

1.2.3. Self-Instructions

Effect is disputed.4

1.2.4. Listening to (classical) music to improve your mood

A study found that listening to Mozart for 10 minutes (Mozart’s Piano Sonata for Four Hands, K. 440) improved mood in both people with ADHD and those without, in contrast to participants who spent 10 minutes in silence.5 This does not constitute an ADHD-specific treatment method.
However, music seems to be helpful for ADHD.6

1.2.5. App-Based Attention and Organizational Skills Training

A study reports on a smartphone app-based training program for attention and organization that led to significant improvements in one-third of adults with ADHD.7
A 2019 meta-analysis found no other studies on the treatment of ADHD using specific apps8

Computer-assisted rehabilitation training, as is commonly used following brain injuries (traumatic brain injuries, strokes), has not yet been used to treat ADHD. In the field of rehabilitation, it is common to conduct 50 sessions ranging from 20 minutes (multiple times a day) to 60 minutes (daily) over a period of 6 to 8 weeks.9 This represents a significantly higher intensity and frequency than the training programs that have been tested for ADHD to date.

1.2.6. Organizational Skills Training

Organizational Skills Training (OST) was shown in an RCT to be helpful for children with ADHD.10
In the case of SCT, training in organizational skills did not result in any improvement in SCT symptoms from the perspective of the people with ADHD. Improvements were observed only from the parents’ perspective, with an effect size of approximately 0.5.11
Parent evaluations are highly susceptible to being skewed toward desired outcomes. The greater the effort invested, the stronger this bias becomes.

1.2.7. Homework Help

In the case of SCT, homework support did not result in any improvement in SCT symptoms from the perspective of the people with ADHD. Improvements were observed only from the parents’ perspective, with an effect size of approximately 0.5.11
Parent evaluations are highly susceptible to being skewed toward desired outcomes. The greater the effort invested, the stronger this bias becomes.

1.2.8. Social Skills Training

A meta-analysis found no conclusive evidence of the effectiveness of non-pharmacological training methods (such as coaching) in improving social behavior toward peers.12
A meta-analysis found weak evidence of benefits from peer-based interventions for ADHD,13 which are primarily aimed at strengthening social support among peers.
Another meta-analysis of 15 studies found evidence of moderate effectiveness of social skills training for children with ADHD.14

1.2.9. Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS)

Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) is a newly developed, noninvasive procedure. Stimulation of the cutaneous receptive field of the auricular branch of the vagus nerve in the outer ear is intended to activate the vagal connections to the central and peripheral nervous systems.15
A report cites transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation as a possible treatment for ADHD.16
To date, there are not even any individual studies showing a benefit for ADHD, let alone a reliable overall picture. taVNS is therefore relevant in relation to ADHD, if at all, only as a research topic.
A study found no effect of taVNS on sustained attention (which is modulated by noradrenergic activity from the locus coeruleus) sustained attention; however, it did find a diminishing effect of active taVNS on cortisol reduction over time, as well as interindividual effects of taVNS on salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol levels as indirect markers of locus coeruleus norepinephrine.17
Similarly, taVNS did not result in a general improvement in performance on reversal tasks, but rather impaired performance in the presence of distracting stimuli. taVNS did not lead to an increase in tonic pupil size or alpha-amylase levels. The decline in cortisol levels was flatter following taVNS. taVNS reduced respiratory rate but had no effect on cardiac vagal activity.18

In rats, a two-week VNS intervention significantly increased extracellular norepinephrine levels in the PFC and hippocampus and enhanced the tonic activation of postsynaptic α2A receptors in pyramidal neurons.19
In mice, taVNS significantly increased c-Fos protein expression in the NST and locus coeruleus nuclei and reduced the heroin-induced fear response.20

The treatment approach should be considered in light of the possible link between the gut-brain axis and ADHD. However, based on our understanding, if this ADHD is caused by such a link, treatment involving probiotics and dietary changes should be considered first. For more on this, see Gut-Brain Axis and ADHD

The vagus nerve is the tenth pair of cranial nerves and is also the longest and most widely distributed pair. The vagus nerve consists of 20% efferent and 80% afferent fibers and includes both sensory and motor nerve fibers. The sensory neurons of the vagus nerve project centrally into the brainstem and terminate at the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) and the nucleus tractus spinalis of the trigeminal nerve. The motor neurons originate from the nucleus ambiguus of the medulla oblongata and the dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve.21

The auricular branch of the vagus nerve is distributed primarily in the tragus, cymba concha, and cavum concha. It crosses the foramen jugulare, then enters the medulla oblongata, and subsequently ascends through the trigeminal nucleus of the spinal cord to connect with the nucleus tractus solitarius. The cymba concha appears to have the strongest activating effect on the vagus nerve pathway and is therefore the optimal treatment site for transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation.21
In humans, the left and right vagus nerves supply the sinus node and the AV node, respectively, with parasympathetic visceromotor innervation. To prevent intracardiac conduction disturbances from triggering arrhythmias, the left ear is generally preferred for transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation.21

The nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) is the primary recipient of afferent fibers from the vagus nerve. It integrates these fibers with other (secondary) sensory signals received from other peripheral regions and transmits them via three main pathways to higher centers in the brain:21

  1. an autonomous feedback loop
  2. directly to the medullary reticular formation
  3. the pontine parabrachial nucleus, the locus coeruleus, and other brain structures.
    The NST thus directly innervates the locus coeruleus, which in turn is an important mediator in the superior reticular activating system and, via the nucleus of the median eminence, the amygdala, the hypothalamus, the orbitofrontal cortex, and the cingulate gyrus, projecting to the cortex and thereby activating it via noradrenergic pathways.

taVNS promotes the sequential activation of the NST and the locus coeruleus, as well as other brain regions that regulate cognitive functions.21 taVNS increased activation of the brainstem, including the locus coeruleus.

The activation of the noradrenergic system appears to be influenced by the match between stimulus intensity and pulse width.22 While a stimulus intensity of 0.5 mA, frequencies of 25 Hz/20 Hz, and pulse widths ranging from 0.25 to 1 ms, a frequency of 100 Hz appears to elicit the strongest fMRI response within the NST-LC system.23

1.2.10. Acupuncture (?)

The effectiveness of acupuncture is controversial. To date, there are no conclusive medical models to explain it.

  • Positive results

    • A meta-analysis reports that acupuncture is highly effective in treating hyperactivity.24
    • A meta-analysis of k = 14 studies involving n = 1,185 patients found that acupuncture, when used as an adjunct to conventional medication, supported improvements in behavioral disorders, learning difficulties, hyperactivity-impulsivity, and hyperactivity symptoms in patients with ADHD, and that, when used as a standalone treatment, it improved learning difficulties, hyperactivity-impulsivity, and hyperactivity symptoms in patients with ADHD. The risk of bias in the included studies was generally a concern, so the evidence for the efficacy of acupuncture in ADHD is currently too limited to recommend its use.25 Another meta-analysis involving k = 25 studies and n = 1,758 participants found similar results.26
    • Some studies report an effect that goes beyond that of a placebo.27282930

  • Unclear results
    Two German double-blind studies, which conclude that only a placebo effect has been demonstrated for acupuncture to date, nevertheless show in their data that acupuncture achieved results that were 20% better than those of sham acupuncture.3132

  • No improvements

    • Another meta-analysis of 5 studies found no conclusive evidence that acupuncture improves ADHD.33
    • An open-label controlled study using the “Pestle needle,” a Taoist acupuncture method, as an adjunct treatment to EEG biofeedback and methylphenidate, found improvements in sleep and various other parameters, but not in ADHD symptoms as rated by parents.34

Another meta-analysis aims to examine the effects of acupuncture in the treatment of ADHD.35

1.2.11. Homeopathy

A meta-analysis that had reported benefits of additional individualized homeopathic treatment for ADHD was retracted due to an erroneous interpretation in favor of homeopathy.3637
One RCT reports symptom improvements with homeopathy, though these are based solely on parents’ reports.38 Parents’ reports are systematically biased and are generally more positive than teachers’ reports or doctors’ assessments.

1.2.12. Fidgets

A study found a significant improvement in sustained attention among students with ADHD who used fidget toys during class.39

1.2.13. Random Noise

In random noise therapy, any form of energy (e.g., light, mechanical, electrical, or acoustic energy) of unpredictable intensity is used to stimulate the brain and sensory receptors; the goal is to improve sensory, motor, and cognitive functions. In random noise therapy, mechanical sounds were originally used as auditory and cutaneous stimuli. Today, electrical energy that acts on the brain or the skin is increasingly being used. Recent findings show that transcranial random noise stimulation can increase corticospinal excitability, improve cognitive and motor performance, and have positive effects on behavior and psychological well-being.40

1.2.14. Spinal Manipulation / Spinal Mobilization

A meta-analysis found no evidence that spinal manipulation or mobilization is effective for ADHD.41

1.2.15. Low-intensity ultrasound stimulation

Low-intensity ultrasound stimulation was able to improve abnormal brain function in SHR. We are not aware of any studies on the clinical use of this treatment for ADHD in humans.42

1.2.16. Quiet Eye Training

Source43

1.2.17. Animal-Assisted Therapy

Animal-assisted therapy is said to be helpful for ADHD.44
A study reports positive effects of equine-assisted occupational therapy for schoolchildren with ADHD.2

A meta-analysis of k = 17 RCTs found that animal-assisted treatment was effective compared to non-animal-assisted treatment groups in children with ADHD:45

  • 0.77 motor skills
  • 0.69 Learning and cognitive problems
  • 0.42 Attention
  • 0.46 Self-esteem

The combined effect of animal-assisted therapy on the severity of ADHD symptoms did not differ significantly from the effect of conventional treatments in the control group.
As a treatment strategy for ADHD that complements gold-standard approaches such as medication or multimodal interventions, animal-assisted therapy does not appear to be more effective in improving most of the key ADHD outcomes in children.45

Animal-assisted therapy had no significant positive effects on:45

  • social interaction
  • social skills
  • problematic behaviors
  • emotional problems, including depression and anxiety

1.2.18. Parenting Training

Parent management training and attention process training were compared in three groups of children with ADHD, each consisting of n = 15 children, all of whom were being treated with methylphenidate.
Parenting methods (Parent Management Training) combined with MPH proved to be more effective than MPH alone, but less effective than attention process training combined with MPH.46

An online parenting program improved the children’s SDHS symptoms and reduced the parents’ stress.47

Parental training combined with medication was more effective than medication alone for children with ADHD.48

A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on behavioral therapy-based parent training programs examined outcomes more than two months after the end of the intervention (on average, 5.3 months after the start). Compared with the control conditions, small to moderate effects were found on ADHD symptoms, behavioral problems, positive parenting behaviors, parents’ perceived competence, and the quality of the parent-child relationship. Within the intervention groups, improvements were sustained across all areas; there were barely any changes between the end of the intervention and the follow-up assessment. Unlike in some meta-analyses of short-term effects, blinded and unblinded assessments of ADHD symptoms did not differ at the time of the follow-up assessment. Greater reductions in ADHD symptoms were observed among girls, and greater reductions in behavioral problems were seen among younger children. (Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials, k = 27 studies with 31 interventions and 217 effect sizes, E 1b)49

1.2.19. Attention Process Training

Parental management training and attention process training were compared in three groups of children with ADHD, each consisting of n = 15 children, all of whom were being treated with methylphenidate.
Parenting methods (Parent Management Training) combined with MPH proved to be more effective than MPH alone, but less effective than attention process training combined with MPH.46

  1. Peters, in: Frühgeborene und Schule – Ermutigt oder ausgebremst? Kapitel 2: Das Aufmerksamkeitsdefizitsyndrom (AD(H)S) Seite 132 ↥

  2. Gilboa, Helmer (2020): Self-Management Intervention for Attention and Executive Functions Using Equine-Assisted Occupational Therapy Among Children Aged 6-14 Diagnosed with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Altern Complement Med. 2020 Jan 14;10.1089/acm.2019.0374. doi: 10.1089/acm.2019.0374. PMID: 31934771. ↥ ↥

  3. Fregni et al: Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex enhances working memory, Exp. Brain Res. 2005, Sept. 166(1): 23-30, zitiert nach Kühle, Dr. med Hans-Jürgen, Neurofeedbacktherapie bei ADHS, Giessen 2010 (PDF von Webseite Dr. Kühle, Download August 2015), S. 4 ↥

  4. Müller, Candrian, Kropotov (2011): ADHS – Neurodiagnostik in der Praxis, Seite 24 ↥

  5. Zimmermann, Diers, Strunz, Scherbaum, Mette (2019): Listening to Mozart Improves Current Mood in Adult ADHD – A Randomized Controlled Pilot Study. Front Psychol. 2019 May 15;10:1104. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01104. eCollection 2019. ↥

  6. Martin-Moratinos M, Bella-Fernández M, Blasco-Fontecilla H (2023): Effects of Music on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Potential Application in Serious Video Games: Systematic Review. J Med Internet Res. 2023 May 12;25:e37742. doi: 10.2196/37742. PMID: 37171837. ↥

  7. Moëll, Kollberg, Nasri, Lindefors, Kaldo (2015): Living SMART — A randomized controlled trial of a guided online course teaching adults with ADHD or sub-clinical ADHD to use smartphones to structure their everyday life, Internet Interventions, Volume 2, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 24-31, ISSN 2214-7829, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.invent.2014.11.004. n = 57 ↥

  8. Tønning, Kessing, Bardram, Faurholt-Jepsen (2019): Methodological Challenges in Randomized Controlled Trials on Smartphone-Based Treatment in Psychiatry: Systematic Review. J Med Internet Res. 2019 Oct 27;21(10):e15362. doi: 10.2196/15362. REVIEW ↥

  9. Rüsseler (2025): Klinische Neuropsychologie von Störungen der Aufmerksamkeit; Vortrag Metropolitan University, London ↥

  10. Huang XX, Zheng LZ, Qian QF, Huang Y, Wang YX, Ou P (2025): A Randomized Controlled Trial of the Effects of Organizational Skills Training on Children With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in China. J Atten Disord. 2025 Jan;29(2):128-139. doi: 10.1177/10870547241289848. PMID: 39431479. n = 66 ↥

  11. Smith, Langberg (2019): Do sluggish cognitive tempo symptoms improve with school-based ADHD interventions? Outcomes and predictors of change. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2019 Oct 30. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.13149. ↥ ↥

  12. [Morris, Sheen, Ling, Foley, Sciberras (2020): Interventions for Adolescents With ADMETASTUDY ↥

  13. Shrestha, Lautenschleger, Soares (2020): Non-pharmacologic management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: a review. Transl Pediatr. 2020 Feb;9(Suppl 1):S114-S124. doi: 10.21037/tp.2019.10.01. PMID: 32206589; PMCID: PMC7082245. REVIEW ↥

  14. Fox, Dishman, Valicek, Ratcliff, Hilton (2020): Effectiveness of Social Skills Interventions Incorporating Peer Interactions for Children With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review. Am J Occup Ther. 2020 Mar/Apr;74(2):7402180070p1-7402180070p19. doi: 10.5014/ajot.2020.040212. PMID: 32204778. METASTUDY ↥

  15. Zhu S, Zhang X, Zhou M, Kendrick KM, Zhao W (2022): Therapeutic applications of transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation with potential for application in neurodevelopmental or other pediatric disorders. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2022 Oct 12;13:1000758. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2022.1000758. PMID: 36313768; PMCID: PMC9596914. ↥

  16. Zaehle, Krauel (2021): Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation in patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A viable option? Prog Brain Res. 2021;264:171-190. doi: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2021.03.001. PMID: 34167655. ↥

  17. Luna FG, Lupiáñez J, König S, Garscha U, Fischer R (2025): Can transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation mitigate vigilance loss? Examining the effects of stimulation at individualized versus constant current intensity. Psychophysiology. 2025 Jan;62(1):e14670. doi: 10.1111/psyp.14670. PMID: 39169561; PMCID: PMC11775886. ↥

  18. D’Agostini M, Burger AM, Franssen M, Claes N, Weymar M, von Leupoldt A, Van Diest I (2021): Effects of transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation on reversal learning, tonic pupil size, salivary alpha-amylase, and cortisol. Psychophysiology. 2021 Oct;58(10):e13885. doi: 10.1111/psyp.13885. PMID: 34245461. ↥

  19. Manta S, El Mansari M, Debonnel G, Blier P (2013): Electrophysiological and neurochemical effects of long-term vagus nerve stimulation on the rat monoaminergic systems. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2013 Mar;16(2):459-70. doi: 10.1017/S1461145712000387. PMID: 22717062. ↥

  20. Yue Y, Zou L, Li H, Xia Y, Ren Z, Yang F, Kong D, Re G, Luo H, Zhang Z, Wang K, Zhu M (2023): Therapeutic effect of implanted and non-invasive vagus nerve stimulation on heroin-induced anxiety. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2023 Apr 16;652:46-54. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2023.02.041. PMID: 36809704. ↥

  21. Zhi J, Zhang S, Huang M, Qin H, Xu H, Chang Q, Wang Y (2024): Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation as a potential therapy for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: modulation of the noradrenergic pathway in the prefrontal lobe. Front Neurosci. 2024 Dec 4;18:1494272. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2024.1494272. PMID: 39697776; PMCID: PMC11652481. REVIEW ↥ ↥ ↥ ↥ ↥

  22. Hulsey DR, Riley JR, Loerwald KW, Rennaker RL 2nd, Kilgard MP, Hays SA (2017): Parametric characterization of neural activity in the locus coeruleus in response to vagus nerve stimulation. Exp Neurol. 2017 Mar;289:21-30. doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.12.005. PMID: 27988257; PMCID: PMC5297969. ↥

  23. Sclocco R, Garcia RG, Kettner NW, Fisher HP, Isenburg K, Makarovsky M, Stowell JA, Goldstein J, Barbieri R, Napadow V (2020): Stimulus frequency modulates brainstem response to respiratory-gated transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation. Brain Stimul. 2020 Jul-Aug;13(4):970-978. doi: 10.1016/j.brs.2020.03.011. PMID: 32380448; PMCID: PMC7931850. ↥

  24. Chen, Wu, Lee, Kung (2021): The Efficacy of Acupuncture Treatment for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Complement Med Res. 2021;28(4):357-367. English. doi: 10.1159/000513655. PMID: 33508834. n = 876, METASTUDY ↥

  25. Ang L, Kim JT, Kim K, Lee HW, Choi JY, Kim E, Lee MS (2023): Acupuncture for Treating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Medicina (Kaunas). 2023 Feb 17;59(2):392. doi: 10.3390/medicina59020392. PMID: 36837594; PMCID: PMC9965965. ↥

  26. Zhao FY, Xu Y, Kennedy GA, Conduit R, Zhang WJ, Jiang T, Xu P, Ho YS, Fu QQ, Chow CM (2025): Is integrating acupuncture into the management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children and adolescents now opportune and evidence-based? A systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. Complement Ther Med. 2025 Jun;90:103163. doi: 10.1016/j.ctim.2025.103163. PMID: 40086639. METASTUDY ↥

  27. Li, Liang, Yang, Tian, Yan, Sun, Chang, Tang, Ma, Zhou, Lan, Yao, Zou (2009): Acupuncture for treating acute attacks of migraine: a randomized controlled trial. Headache. 2009 Jun;49(6):805-16. doi: 10.1111/j.1526-4610.2009.01424.x. PMID: 19438740. RCT ↥

  28. Shetty, Jacob, Shetty, Mooventhan, Aryal, Asha (2020): Effect of acupuncture on cognitive task performance of college students: a pilot study. J Complement Integr Med. 2020 Dec 24;18(3):633-636. doi: 10.1515/jcim-2020-0026. PMID: 34592075. RCT ↥

  29. Xi, Fang, Yuan, Wang (2021): Transcutaneous electrical acupoint stimulation for postoperative cognitive dysfunction in geriatric patients with gastrointestinal tumor: a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2021 Aug 23;22(1):563. doi: 10.1186/s13063-021-05534-9. PMID: 34425851; PMCID: PMC8383437. RCT ↥

  30. de Assis, Chaves, de Sousa, Chianca, Borges, Terra, Brasileiro, Costa, Pereira, de Oliveira, de Castro Moura, Iunes (2021); The effects of auricular acupuncture on vascular parameters on the risk factors for diabetic foot: A randomized clinical trial. Complement Ther Clin Pract. 2021 Aug;44:101442. doi: 10.1016/j.ctcp.2021.101442. PMID: 34265578. RCT ↥

  31. Diener, Kronfeld, Boewing, Lungenhausen, Maier, Molsberger, Tegenthoff, Trampisch, Zenz, Meinert (2006): GERAC Migraine Study Group. Efficacy of acupuncture for the prophylaxis of migraine: a multicentre randomised controlled clinical trial. Lancet Neurol. 2006 Apr;5(4):310-6. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70382-9. Erratum in: Lancet Neurol. 2008 Jun;7(6):475. PMID: 16545747., RCT ↥

  32. Endres, Böwing, Diener, Lange, Maier, Molsberger, Zenz, Vickers, Tegenthoff (2007): Acupuncture for tension-type headache: a multicentre, sham-controlled, patient-and observer-blinded, randomised trial. J Headache Pain. 2007 Oct;8(5):306-14. doi: 10.1007/s10194-007-0416-5. PMID: 17955168; PMCID: PMC3476149., RCT ↥

  33. Zhang L, Huang C, Chen X, Du S, Yang J, Hu B (2023): The efficacy of acupuncture for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): An overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Complement Ther Med. 2023 Aug 8;76:102968. doi: 10.1016/j.ctim.2023.102968. PMID: 37562658. METASTUDY ↥

  34. Wang Y, Liu Q, Liu M, Wang W, Ye S, Liu X, Liang H, Xue X, Gao H (2024): Analysis of the therapeutic effect of pestle needle and EEG biofeedback and methylphenidate in the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Neurophysiol. 2024 Nov 1;132(5):1376-1381. doi: 10.1152/jn.00290.2024. PMID: 39319790. ↥

  35. Xing, Ren, Yue, Chen, Xia, Liu, Dong, Wu, Zhao (2021): Acupuncture treatment on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2021 Aug 27;100(34):e27033. doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000027033. PMID: 34449482; PMCID: PMC8389897. ↥

  36. Gaertner, Teut, Walach (2022): Is homeopathy effective for attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder? A meta-analysis. Pediatr Res. 2022 Jun 14. doi: 10.1038/s41390-022-02127-3. PMID: 35701608. ↥

  37. Additude: ADHD News & Research Analysis: Homeopathy for ADHD Deemed ‘Invalid,’ ‘Biased’ ↥

  38. Brulé D, Landau-Halpern B, Nastase V, Zemans M, Mitsakakis N, Boon H (2023): A Randomized Three-Arm Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Study of Homeopathic Treatment of Children and Youth with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Integr Complement Med. 2023 Sep 6. doi: 10.1089/jicm.2023.0043. PMID: 37672605. ↥

  39. Aspiranti KB, Hulac DM. Using Fidget Spinners to Improve On-Task Classroom Behavior for Students With ADHD. Behav Anal Pract. 2021 Jun 2;15(2):454-465. doi: 10.1007/s40617-021-00588-2. PMID: 35692528; PMCID: PMC9120292. ↥

  40. Herrera-Murillo MA, Treviño M, Manjarrez E. Random noise stimulation in the treatment of patients with neurological disorders. Neural Regen Res. 2022 Dec;17(12):2557-2562. doi: 10.4103/1673-5374.339474. PMID: 35662182; PMCID: PMC9165386. ↥

  41. Milne N, Longeri L, Patel A, Pool J, Olson K, Basson A, Gross AR (2022): Spinal manipulation and mobilisation in the treatment of infants, children, and adolescents: a systematic scoping review. BMC Pediatr. 2022 Dec 19;22(1):721. doi: 10.1186/s12887-022-03781-6. PMID: 36536328; PMCID: PMC9762100. ↥

  42. Wang M, Wang T, Li X, Yuan Y. Low-intensity ultrasound stimulation modulates cortical neurovascular coupling in an attention deficit hyperactivity disorder rat model. Cereb Cortex. 2023 Oct 24:bhad398. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhad398. PMID: 37874023. ↥

  43. Rudolf P, Ludvík V, Daniel D (2023): The Effects of Quiet Eye Training on Attention in Children with ADHD. J Hum Kinet. 2023 Jul 6;89:53-63. doi: 10.5114/jhk/168267. PMID: 38053954; PMCID: PMC10694725. ↥

  44. Doan T, Pennewitt D, Patel R (2023): Animal assisted therapy in pediatric mental health conditions: A review. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care. 2023 Dec;53(12):101506. doi: 10.1016/j.cppeds.2023.101506. PMID: 38040610. REVIEW ↥

  45. Yu S, Xue H, Xie Y, Shao G, Hao Y, Fan L, Du W (2025): Review: Animal-assisted intervention for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder - a systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Adolesc Ment Health. 2025 Feb;30(1):34-52. doi: 10.1111/camh.12744. PMID: 39791320. REVIEW ↥ ↥ ↥

  46. Nadermohammadi Moghadam M, Bakhshi P, Azarkollah A, Moulai B, Molavi P (2024): A Comparison of Effectiveness of Attention Process Training (APT) with Parenting Management Training (PMT) in Reducing Symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Iran J Psychiatry. 2024 Jul;19(3):254-264. doi: 10.18502/ijps.v19i3.15802. PMID: 39055521; PMCID: PMC11267122. ↥ ↥

  47. Fan H, Yang W, Wu X, Chen Q, Wang H, Zhu K, Zhao S, Liu R, Xiang Z, Wang Z, Wang T, Tang J, Song R (2025): Internet-based behavioural parent training intervention for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A randomized clinical trial. Asian J Psychiatr. 2025 May;107:104459. doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2025.104459. PMID: 40157217. RCT ↥

  48. Hafiz Ahmet B, Bıkmazer A, Gormez V (2025): CBT, parent training, and combined approaches for children with ADHD: A randomized study. Psychol Psychother. 2025 Sep 4. doi: 10.1111/papt.70011. PMID: 40908762. ↥

  49. Doffer DPA, Dekkers TJ, Hornstra R, van der Oord S, Luman M, Leijten P, Hoekstra PJ, van den Hoofdakker BJ, Groenman AP (2023): Sustained improvements by behavioural parent training for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review of longer-term child and parental outcomes. JCPP Adv. 2023;3(3):e12196. doi: 10.1002/jcv2.12196. PMID: 37720584; PMCID: PMC10501699.. METASTUDY; k = 27 ↥